Major Threats

Threats and Causes

Habitat loss, fragmentation and destruction

Habitat conversion, degradation and loss are the main causes for ecosystem fragmentation and species decline given that habitats provide species with all the requirements and elements of their ecological niches. In case the natural habitat is not fully transformed or destroyed, it is degraded to sub-optimal condition.

The terrestrial ecosystem is constantly suffering from habitat loss, fragmentation and destruction. The major causes that are responsible for this phenomenon are listed in the following paragraphs.

In Lebanon, chaotic and anarchical urbanization is the main cause for the loss, fragmentation and destruction of terrestrial ecosystems and their habitats (SOER, 2010). Various factors contributed to haphazard urbanization namely:

• The amplified demographic pressure. Today, with the absence of an adequate urban planning, a high number of illegal constructions and an increase in the number of Syrian refugees that reached 1,144,706 refugees in 2014 (UNHCR, 2014), the pressure on biodiversity became a major concern. Habitats are being lost, fragmented or destroyed and sometimes with no possible regeneration;
• Inappropriate inheritance law and lack of proper enforcement of the construction law;
• Real Estate Speculations; and
• Lack of awareness.

Rangelands are primarily affected by urbanization followed by overgrazing. Some of these lands were fragmented from maquis[1] to garrigue[2] and then to batha[3]. A further degradation of those areas due to unsustainable activities will make them unable to support the biodiversity they initially sustained (SOER, 2010).

Forest fires are also responsible for the destruction of large areas that comprise many ecosystem habitats. The reasons behind this occurrence are the lack of forest management, fire prevention and law enforcement, the absence of civil defense and the insufficient awareness amongst the public. In Lebanon, pine forest ecosystems are mostly affected by forest fires (natural or manmade). The stone pine (Pinus pinea) is mainly threatened by urban development and forest fires. Forest fires that occurred during the period 2007-2008, have resulted in the loss of 4,200 ha of Lebanon’s vegetation cover. According to AFDC (a national NGO) (2007), during one day in October 2007, the total burned area was equivalent to three times the area afforested during a period of 17 years. These fires were the main reason behind forest fragmentation and loss of related ecosystem services. Consequently, the livelihood of local communities was affected in a dramatic manner given that they depend upon forests for a variety of goods and services including 1) the collection of edible fruits, flowers, tubers, roots and leaves for food and medicines; 2) firewood for cooking, heating, and sale; 3) materials for agricultural implements, house construction and fencing, 4) grazing of livestock, and 5) collection of a range of marketable non-timber forest products.

Another cause for habitat loss, fragmentation and destruction is deforestation which is estimated at 0.4 %/ year (MoE, 2012-a) and which root causes are the lack of awareness and law enforcement, poverty (cutting trees for fuel wood during winter season due to high fuel prices), the lack of a proper forest law enforcement and economic factors (e.g. chopping Juniper and various oak species for the illegal production of charcoal). The uncontrolled production of charcoal and trees cutting for fuel wood, mainly destined for heating, used to constitute a major threat to the vegetation cover, as forests were totally harvested even on very steep slopes. This was frequently followed by intensive grazing as soon as the vegetation started to coppice again. In addition, the risk of occurrence of forest fires was very high during the charcoal production operations. As a result, the MoA issued a decree totally forbidding the production of charcoal; yet illegal productions still occurred. After several years of banning, charcoal production is currently allowed under certain conditions and in certain time periods. These new regulations are being enforced and charcoal production is having fewer impacts on wooded lands and forests.

Declining forests are also threatened by overgrazing which can inhibit regeneration. Recreational activities, such as ATV, quads, hunting, and camping are also considered as causes for deforestation.

Quarrying is also an important factor leading to habitat loss, fragmentation, and destruction. Quarrying activities in Lebanon have always been critical. On one side, quarries are needed to support the construction sector. On the other hand, the encroachment of quarries on forests and agro-ecosystems is a major problem. A number of quarries have been permitted in the past, only to see small sites being transformed into huge cavities in the mountains in a way that does not allow any form of restoration. A number of initiatives have been started including the attempt to locate quarries to the eastern mountain range of Lebanon or to ban quarries altogether and rely on imports. Most of these initiatives failed because of lack of feasibility. Currently, there are around 1,300 quarries scattered all over the country ranging from local to large scale quarries feeding the cement and construction industries. Quarrying activities accelerate the erosion processes and subsequent destruction of existing arable lands, modify preexisting ecosystems, change landscape patterns and integrity, destroy natural habitat and interrupt natural succession (Khater et al., 2003; Khater, 2004), as well as modify genetic resources (El-Fadel et al., 2000; ESCWA, 2001). Moreover, the expansion of quarries in Lebanon between 1989 and 2005 destroyed 738 ha of grasslands, 676 ha of arable lands, and 137 ha of forest area (Darwish et al., 2010).The causes behind extensive and unsustainable quarrying are the lack of awareness amongst quarry owners, the lack of proper law enforcement, urbanization that requires rocks from quarries to build houses, corruption at the political and public levels, and socio-economic factors (income from rock selling). 

In addition, growing timber in agricultural lands and the extensive agricultural expansion highly damage these ecosystems. Some farm or home plantations are typically established for the production of timber. In some cases, commercial timber concessions are overlapped by community forests. The root causes are the low profit from forests and natural ecosystems, the lack of awareness at the decision-making level (politicians and civil society), the extension services, the absence of a rural development and agro-forestry policies as well as agricultural planning.

Large-scale public works are without sufficient integration as a result of demographic growth, poor urban planning, wars, civil wars and regime instability. Such activities can negatively affect ecosystems.

Sand is extracted from shores for construction purposes threatening such habitats. Political pressure, the high profit from gravels, sands/ stones and the lack of law enforcement are the factors that allow such activities.

Furthermore, biodiversity and ecosystem services are given very low intrinsic value due to the lack of investment outside the construction sector which indirectly affects ecosystems and their habitats.

Recreational pressure is an additional cause for habitat loss, destruction or fragmentation. The absence of an adequate strategy is the root cause for this incident. Recreational activities are leisure activities practiced by people that can, in some cases, be harmful to the surrounding environment. Examples of recreational activities that are contributing to habitat loss, destruction or fragmentation are:

• Construction of beach resorts and hotels on coastal areas;
• Land reclamation, mainly over the sea, for the creation of restaurants and outdoor activities areas;
• Expansion of ski resorts;
• Construction of mountain resorts and country clubs; and
• Camping and outdoor activities leading to forest fires and littering.

The absence of an adequate strategy to manage the development of resorts, a lack of enforcement of construction regulations, a lack of enforcement of EIA studies recommendations, and a lack of awareness are the causes of such incidents.

Unsustainable exploitation of natural resources

Lebanon is located on one of the world’s key migratory bird corridors. Unfortunately, despite that hunting is forbidden officially until the official opening of the hunting season each year by the MoE, specifying the type and number of game birds allowed for hunting only in the hunting season, many violations are witnessed due to unsustainable hunting practices and hunting malpractices, consequently migratory birds such as avian populations are being killed in high numbers.

The substantial harvesting of trees, medicinal plants that are used in rural areas for the treatment of diseases (burns, gastrointestinal diseases etc.) and aromatic plants which are used in Lebanese cuisine, is also being observed. The assessed market value of medicinal and aromatic plants produced by forests in Lebanon is US $29.6 million/year (SOER, 2010). A Survey of Economic Plants for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (SEPASAL) found 224 plants of economic significance distributed in Lebanon (SEPASAL, 1999). Other economic uses comprise local consumption (staple foods and wild edible plants), honey production (melliferous plants), landscaping (ornamental plants), and environmental uses (erosion control, agro-forestry, soil remediation, biotic indicators of pollution, etc.

With an increasing population, the pressure on groundwater for irrigation purposes is more and more accentuated which puts the freshwater ecosystem at risk.

The unsustainable water consumption can be explained by the excessive use of groundwater for irrigation purposes. This occurrence is the result of the combination of various factors such as the lack of awareness and incentives, the insufficient Governmental support, the lack of adaptation to climate change and the absence of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM).

Poverty is a major factor that drives people to behave in an unsustainable manner in order to meet their needs for survival.

Poverty in Lebanon is characterized by geographical and sectoral disparities. It is more concentrated in agriculture and in the informal sector. Poor people also live, in general, far from the country’s main centers, in peripheral areas of the North and Bekaa, though slums are expanding and nurturing poverty. The latest official nationwide survey results on the living conditions of households date back to 2004-2005. A study conducted by UNDP and the Ministry of Social Affairs (MoSA) in 2008 used the 2004-2005 survey and applied the unsatisfied basic needs approach based on proxy indicators and found that the share of households that have unsatisfied basic needs accounted for 29.7% of total households (30.9% of the population). Out of these, 4.4% of households lived in extreme deprivation i.e. very low satisfaction of basic needs (3.9% of the population) (UNDP and MoSA 2007) (Figure 6).

Figure 6                 Percentage of Low and Extremely Low Basic Satisfied Needs out of Total Population, by Governorate

Source: UNDP(2013-2014)

Moreover, again using the same last household budget survey of 2004– 2005, a national poverty line was estimated at US$4 per day with a poverty rate of 27%. A lower poverty line of US$2.4 per day and an extreme poverty rate of 8% were also calculated (Table 5) (MoSA, CAS and UNDP 2004).

Poverty in Lebanon is also associated with marginalized social groups such as the disabled, the elderly and female-headed households (often widows). Of female-headed households, 36% are considered deprived, versus 23% of male-headed households (UNDP and MoSA 2007).

Other indicators of inequality based on the 2004–2005 data show that the distribution of expenditure is also highly unequal, with the poorest 20% of the population consuming only 7% of total consumption while the richest 20% consume 43%, meaning that the share of the richest is equivalent to more than 6 times that of the poorest (UNDP and MoSA 2008).

Due to poverty, people illegally cut trees for heating purposes because they cannot afford the ever rising fuel prices. Some people burn forests to gather and sell wood. The root causes for poverty are the lack of alternative incomes and awareness. Another cause for this threat is people’s greed and pride which is enhanced by the lack of law enforcement and control. Bad harvesting practices and rangeland management are mainly caused the lack of cultural awareness, and uncontrolled grazing. The absence of sufficient areas dedicated for grazing due to Land use planning gaps is another cause for overexploitation of natural resources. This topic is neglected due to the lack of appropriate education. Some people consider hunting wild species as a hobby and others as a sport, and they carry out this activity without differentiation between the species and through hunting a large number of species, with no regard to the consequences of their actions. This can be explained by the lack of awareness and law implementation, competition among hunters, and economic profit (high income from selling wild animals), medicinal use and fodder purposes. Deforestation is an additional consequence of poverty and is mainly due to the lack of awareness.

Marine species are being harmed by overfishing activities and illegal practices including the use of dynamites, small mesh size trawling nets and the massive collection of molluscs. The average annual capture (not counting aquaculture) of marine fish and molluscs/ crustaceans is 3,646 and 200 metric tons respectively from the marine basin (4,702 km²) and the continental shelf (~ 1,169 km²) (SOER, 2010). 

The different causes for the unsustainable exploitation of marine natural resources include the lack of data due to the absence of funding and the lack of political will highly affect the ability to control marine natural resources and limit their abuse. Outdated regulation is another challenge and is caused by the lack of political will. Illegal fishing gear is also a cause for this threat and it is driven by the insufficient education and cultural awareness.

Other root causes affecting marine resources also include lack of awareness, competition, lack of inter-institutional cooperation and knowledge transfer between the concerned ministries (mainly MoE, MoA, MoTPW, MoI, and MoEW), the private sector and academic institutions and the need for more suitable expertise and personnel.

Pollution

Pollution from various sources particularly affects the terrestrial, marine and coastal and freshwater ecosystems. The causes behind this phenomenon are listed in the paragraphs below.

The sources of pollution of the terrestrial ecosystem are:

The discharge of untreated municipal wastewater due to the lack of infrastructure and treatment plants and the absence of adequate policies;

The discharge of untreated industrial effluents due to the economic profit to industries;

The improper solid waste disposal from livestock, farms etc. through the creation of open uncontrolled dumps;

Wars during which illegal chemicals are used and fuel leaks occur causing major pollution problems;

Agro-industries that use excessive quantities of pesticides, fertilizers and agrochemicals. According to FAO, Lebanon consumed 78,840 tons of fertilizers in 2002 with an average rate of fertilizers of 414 kg/ha;

Agriculture is considered to be an important energy consumption sector. Agriculture is increasingly dependent on the direct use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery; and use of gasoline, liquid propane, and electricity to power dryers, pumps, lights, heaters, and coolers) and indirect input (use of fossil fuels to produce fertilizers) of fossil fuels. If not managed properly, lubricants, fuels and other chemicals that are used in the agricultural sector could be a source of pollution to the surrounding environment and could contribute to climate change (emission of pollutants);

Healthcare waste that is usually discharged into the environment with no prior treatment; and

Gas Emissions from industries, incineration processes, cars and transportation (Figure 7).

Figure 7                 Lebanon’s Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions Summary for the Year 2000

Source: Lebanon’s Second National Communication Report to the UNFCCC (2011)

Other causes include the lack of law enforcement and funding and insufficient awareness and knowledge regarding the impacts of pollution on the terrestrial ecosystem.

The sources of pollution of the marine and coastal ecosystem are:

Industrial waste (liquid and solid) caused by the lack of political will, the weak enforcement of legislative texts, the lack of waste management and infrastructure;

Domestic waste due to the absence of waste water treatment;

Potential spills due to geopolitical reasons, for instance the intentional major oil spill during the Israeli War on Lebanon in 2006, and the absence of an oil and gas contingency plan;

Shipping and the discharge of ballast water which contain pollutants that occur due to the absence of maritime regulation;

Agricultural waste disposal (pesticides etc.) contaminate marine waters. Other root causes include the lack of law enforcement, awareness and social behaviors (open dumping of solid waste and wastewater, overgrazing, overfishing, illegal construction, etc.).

Air Pollution (acidification) due to transportation and industrial activities.

The sources of pollution of the Freshwater ecosystem are:

Insufficient collection and treatment of domestic wastes mainly due to poor governance, insufficient funds, rapid population growth, lack of sufficient coordination between CDR/ MoEW/ municipal authorities, outdated legal framework, poor enforcement of existing laws and low human capacity. Solid waste affects freshwater quality, sea grasses and marine turtles and changes the habitats of fish, birds and mammals, and impact their distribution and growth;

Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture related to the limited extension staff for the MoA, the poor management system, the illegal entry of chemicals, pilot projects which did not have a sustainable impact owing to a lack of funding, little promotion of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) initiatives;

Industrial pollution that results from the lack of accountability and application and enforcement of the law, the absence of effective incentives and fines, and the non-application of the ‘polluter pays principle’ that holds people accountable for their actions;

Pollution caused by tourism activities results from tourists’ indifference, the lack of awareness by tourist operators and law enforcement and the absence of environmental conditions attached to tourism activity permits.

Invasive alien species

Invasive alien species (IAS) are non-native species which have been introduced by human activities and which now propagate and spread independently throughout the country. Invasive species rapidly grow and expand and are in conflict with indigenous species, jeopardizing habitats and competing for resources needed for their survival thus causing a loss of native biodiversity. According to the Global Invasive Species Database[4] website, there are 24 IAS found in Lebanon. The introduction of invasive flora and fauna is mainly through the importation of ornamental and donated forestry plants with their accompanied insects, the legal/illegal trade of wildlife, the escape of exotic bird species from cages, and the introduction of non-native marine species when the Suez Canal was opened in 1869.

IAS are not yet considered a major threat to biodiversity in the country nor recognized as a key element of strategy development probably because their posed threat is poorly understood due to the lack of relevant studies and assessments (SOER, 2010). As a result, limited work is being conducted to identify or control or track the introduction of alien species and no significant measures were taken in this purpose except in protected areas. Within protected areas, introduction of alien species is forbidden by law, management plans are in place and operating in respect to some of the invasive species threatening endemic species.

In addition, the following causes also contribute to the appearance of IAS:

The lack of enforcement of regulations and control due to insufficient governmental infrastructure and knowledge, absence of proper control at the borders (such as genetic bar coding), and the need for more technical expertise and researchers and more laboratories that are able to deliver required outputs and accurate results. IAS regulations and control are currently limited to:

• MoA Decision 108/1 issued in September 1995 to ban the import and introduction of any Cedar seeds, seedlings and plants. This decision was issued in response to the uncontrolled introduction of trees from the Cedrus genus through the ornamental industry;
• MoA’s regulation of the import and export of species through issuing of CITES permits. knowing that Lebanon has ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)[5] through Law 233 dated 22/10/2012;

The low number of staff at MoA with proper skills to identify IAS and apply the existing regulations;

The low amount of research undertaken related to IAS. Only few alien species of major concern have been studied. These are limited to the identification of species but there are no scientific publications on the risk assessment of these species in Lebanon even though it is considered to be a real threat;

Lack of technical expertise and researchers in relation to IAS.

The absence of national monitoring of species which is mainly due to the insufficient coordination between universities and ministries along with limited research funding;

Climate change which enhances the movement of invasive species due to shifting climatic conditions and a lack of emergency plans;

The high economic value for some IAS that act as an incentive for their import and release; and

The discharge of agricultural runoff and untreated sewage waste into water bodies creating nutrient-rich environments favoring the survival of some IAS.An example is the appearance of “Zahret El Nil” plant (Eichhornia sp.) in the basin of Al-Kabir River which resulted in clogging irrigation canals, creation of prime habitats for diseases’ vectors, and flooding events damaging agricultural lands along the river.

The main impacts of IAS on biodiversity and ecosystems are the replacement/ loss of native species and disturbance of natural habitats, sometimes coupled with socio-economic implications. For instance, a decrease in agricultural production where IAS, when proliferating near agricultural lands, may affect the productive capacity of the land and increase agricultural labor time, affecting human well-being by threatening the availability of food.

Introduction of new improved varieties (agro-biodiversity)

Agro-biodiversity is “the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. It comprises the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fiber, fuel and pharmaceuticals. It also includes the diversity of non-harvested species that support production (soil micro-organisms, predators, pollinators), and those in the wider environment that support agro-ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic) as well as the diversity of the agro-ecosystems” (FAO, 1999a). New improved varieties are introduced for three main reasons:

Better productivity leading to better income. The root cause is economic profit;

Improved tolerance to biotic/ abiotic stress therefore aiding food security;

Absence of incentives to keep local varieties of fauna and flora which root cause is the lack of awareness.

New introduced varieties replace local trade varieties and can be difficult to control. Those new species can cause reduced propagation of native biodiversity and the gene pool may eventually be affected and reduced.

Climate change

Ever since the industrial revolution, the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is increasing, considerably affecting all forms of life on earth including biodiversity. The causes responsible for this phenomenon are the lack of alternative sources of energy, the overuse of fossil fuels, and the absence of alternative public transportation options. On the other hand, the insufficient adaptation to climate change is another cause which results from the lack of coordination and awareness and the unavailability of data.

Biodiversity in the Arab countries, already deteriorating, will be further damaged by intensifying climate change. A 2°C rise in temperature will make extinct up to 40% of all the species. The Arab countries have many unique formations that are especially vulnerable to climate change risk, such as the cedar forests in Lebanon and Syria, the mangroves in Qatar, the reed marshes of Iraq, the high mountain ranges of Yemen and Oman, and the coastal mountain ranges of the Red Sea (AFED, 2009).

In Lebanon, climate change has yet to be considered as a high priority by national authorities. However, consequences are being felt even if at low degrees. The manifestation of hotter summers, reduced and more irregular winter rainfall which is more likely to fall than snow (high temperatures causing more evaporation than infiltration) and the ensuing reduction of water resources are obvious social and environmental impacts of climate change.

Lebanon’s high altitudes, which provide refuges for many specialized species and niche ecosystems, will undoubtedly witness distribution shifts and in some cases disappearance of species. Two coniferous tree species, the cedar of Lebanon and the Silician fir reach their southernmost distribution limit in Lebanon and their distribution range will recede with increasing temperature to higher latitudes and altitudes in the region (AFED, 2009).

Ecosystems that comprise drought resistant species will adapt more easily to climate change compared to other ecosystems. Warmer climates are expected to cause an increase in rodents (field mice, house mice, rats etc.) all through the Lebanese territories. This phenomenon will eventually lead to an increase in rodent predators such as jackals, foxes, stone martins, etc. On the other hand, marginal mammals will become extinct due to the loss of habitat and food. This is the case for otters (Lutra lutra) (such as those in the Aammiq wetlands) and other mammals that depend on water bodies whose habitat will be harshly reduced due to the decrease in water resources (MoE, 2009). Increased temperatures will also cause the spread and proliferation of insect pests and disease vector populations. Climate change can also cause a shift of bioclimatic zones to higher altitudes which will mainly affect various reptiles and amphibians (Farajallah, 2008).

Other climate change impacts include modifications in 1) population physiology, 2) ecosystem phenology, and 3) geographical distribution of species.

Trends and routes of migration of birds will also be disturbed. Furthermore, bird populations whose distribution is restricted by cold temperatures will be forced to expand beyond their natural number with warmer temperatures. Inspections of the Lebanese avifauna suggest that few bird species from hot desert climate have started to colonize the vulnerable zone of the semi-arid Qaa by competing with native avifaunal species (SOER, 2010). The arrival of numerous new semi-desertic bird species in Lebanon is expected to occur (SOER, 2010).

In addition, increased temperatures will allow some plant species to become resistant to herbicides and pesticides.

Lack of data

The lack of data constitutes a major threat to biodiversity given that, with inadequate and insufficient data, the gaps and issues concerning the current status of biodiversity and ecosystems cannot be effectively determined, and can have consequences on finding appropriate solutions. The causes for the lack of data on biodiversity and ecosystems are:

The lack of funds due to the absence of a strategic vision and political will;

The lack of expertise due to insufficient awareness at the institutional level;

The lack of a vision allowing for the establishment of a national management framework of Lebanon’s biodiversity in the longer term. This is mainly due to little importance be given to biodiversity and the lack of enough data to set a vision;

The lack of effective responsibilities due to overlapping mandates and regulations; and

The lack of personnel due to the absence of clear mandates.

As listed in the previous paragraphs, various threats to biodiversity in Lebanon exist and need to be urgently addressed in order to limit the negative impacts that can sometimes become irreversible. Not all the threats are given equal priority at the national level such as climate change that has yet to be considered as a high priority by the National Authorities. Nearly all threats affect all ecosystems where habitat loss appears to be the most prominent, followed by chemical pollution, illegal hunting and persecution (MoE, 2009).

Consequences

The threats described in section Threats and Causes have various consequences on biodiversity, including direct pressures on species and ecosystems (species extinction, reduction in genetic diversity, decrease in ecosystems resilience, etc.) and indirect pressures and consequences on human well-being (impacts on health, increase in natural disasters, loss of tourism revenue, etc.). The consequences of the different threats listed above are presented in Table 6 per major ecosystem type: terrestrial, marine/coastal, and freshwater.

The main consequences can be summarized as follows:

• Perturbation of ecosystem functions (vegetative cover, soil loss, erosion)
• Reduced natural regeneration (overgrazing)
• Alteration of food chains
• Impacts on health and well-being / Food and nutritional Insecurity
• Reduction in genetic diversity / Genetic drift
• Economic losses: less tourism, decrease in agricultural productions, reduced market offer diversity, etc.
• Species extinction/ Increased risk of species extinction
• Increase in invasive species which will increase the toxicity and will compete with native and endemic species
• Loss of accessibility to the maritime public domain
• Increased pest outbreak
• Monoculture and replacement of local trade varieties with new improved ones
• Increased resistance to some herbicides/ pesticides
• Risk of gene pollution from GMOs (long-term consequence)
• Increase in natural hazards (flood, salinization and acid rain, etc.)
• Difficulties in preparing management plans and (due to lack of data and motivation) lobbying for conservation